Table 1 Application of MSCs from various sources and their therapeutic outcomes

Adipose‐derived MSCs (ADSCs)

Easy access, adequate source, and high proliferation

Intratibial injection

Prevention of bone loss, upgradation of trabecular bone quality, and increase in expression of molecular markers related to bone turnover

[2]

Partial transplantation (encapsulated via calcium alginate gel)

Stimulated proliferation, promoted osteogenic differentiation, and enhanced bone regeneration

[28]

Bone marrow MSCs (BMMSCs)

Easy accessibility and high differentiation potential

Partial transplantation

Increased trabecular thickness, improved newly formed osteoids with microstructures, and increased bone stiffness

[2]

Partial injection

Increased bone mass, reduced rate of bone loss, and osteoporosis prevention

Systemic infusion

Prevention of bone loss and strength reduction

Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs)

Capability of mediating tissue regeneration and osteogenic differentiation

Systemic infusion (modified by hepatocyte growth factor (HGF))

Strengthened osteogenic differentiation capacities and increased expression of osteogenic-related genes

[29, 30]

Umbilical cord MSCs (UCMSCs)

High osteogenic and proliferative capacity

Partial injection

Increased osteogenic differentiation, increased trabecular bone formation, and reduced bone loss

[31, 32]