Table 2 Key signaling pathways and potential mediators underlying burn-induced HO

Vessel- and endothelial cell-based pathways

HIF-1, VEGF, ASCs/MSCs

BMP2, BMP4, TGF-β, EMT

[43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50]

Immune cell-based pathways

TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, neutrophils and monocytes

CXCL1, CXCL2, MCP-1, G-CSF, GM-CSF and TGF-β, macrophages

T cells and B cells

[51,52,53,54]

Muscle satellite cell-based pathways

NF-κB, neutrophils, Rho signaling

[55,56,57,58,59]

Other factors (age, gender etc.)

Smad, NF-κB, IGF-1, testosterone

[60,61,62]